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Basics as well as Advanced Power Point Tutorial

It is the file which Er. Naveen Khanna Sir wanted to share with the 2nd Year students of PGIMS Rohtak,
The file hosts information about Power Point - from basics to advanced features, how to use it, make slides, presentations, slide shows, adding effects and all.
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PHARMACOGNOSY – GPAT Syllabus 2013

Sources of Drugs:

Biological, marine, mineral and plant tissue cultures as sources of drugs;

Classification of Drugs:

Morphological, taxonomical, chemical and pharmacological classification of drugs; Study of medicinally important plants belonging to the families with special reference to: Apocynacae, Solanaceae, Rutaceae, Umbelliferae, Leguminosae, Rubiaceae, Liliaceae, Graminae, Labiatae, Cruciferae, Papaveraceae.

Cultivation, Collection, Processing and Storage of Crude Drugs:

Factors influencing cultivation of medicinal plants, Types of soils and fertilizers of common use. Pest management and natural pest control agents, Plant hormones and their applications, Polyploidy, mutation and hybridization with reference to medicinal plants.

PHARMACOLOGY – GPAT Syllabus 2013

Pathophysiology of common diseases; Basic Principles of Cell Injury and Adaptations:

Causes of Cellular injury, pathogenesis, morphology of cell injury, adaptations and cell death.

Basic Mechanisms involved in the process of inflammation and repair:

Vascular and cellular events of acute inflammation, chemical mediators of inflammation, pathogenesis of chronic inflammation, brief outline of the process of repair.

Immunopathophysiology:

T and B cells, MHC proteins, antigen presenting cells, immune tolerance, pathogenesis of hypersensitivity reactions, autoimmune diseases, AIDS, Amyloidosis.

PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY – GPAT Syllabus 2013

Inorganic pharmaceutical & medicinal chemistry

Importance of inorganic compounds in pharmacy and medicine;

An outline of methods of preparation, uses, sources of impurities, tests for purity and identity, including limit tests for iron, arsenic, lead, heavy metals, chloride, sulphate and special tests if any, of the following classes of inorganic pharmaceuticals included in Indian Pharmacopoeia:

Gastrointestinal Agents:

Acidifying agents, Antacids, Protectives and Adsorbents, Cathartics;

Major Intra- and Extra-cellular Electrolytes:

Physiological ions. Electrolytes used for replacement therapy, acid-base balance and combination therapy;

PHARMACEUTICS - GPAT 2013 Syllabus

Introduction to Physical pharmacy

Matter, Properties of Matter:

State of matter, change in the state of matter, latent heats and vapor pressure, sublimation critical point, Eutectic mixtures, gases, aerosols-inhalers, relative humidity, liquid. Complexes, liquid crystals, glassy state, solids- crystalline, amorphous and polymorphism.

Micromeretics and Powder Rheology:

Particle size and distribution, average particle size, number and weight distribution, particle number, methods for determining particle volume, methods of determining particle size- optical microscopy, sieving, sedimentation; measurements of particle shape, specific surface area; methods for determining surface area; permeability, adsorption, derived properties of powders,
porosity, packing arrangement, densities, bulkiness & flow properties.

Surface and Interfacial Phenomenon:

Liquid interface, surface and interfacial tensions, surface free energy, measurement of surface and interfacial tensions, spreading coefficient, adsorption at liquid interfaces, surface active agents, HLB classification, solubilization, detergency, adsorption at solid interfaces, solid-gas and solid-liquid interfaces, complex films, electrical properties of interface.

Diabetes mellitus part 2

Pathophysiology:

The fluctuation of blood sugar (red) and the sugar-lowering hormone insulin (blue) in humans during the courseof a day with three meals - one of the effects of a sugar-rich vs a starch-rich meal is highlighted

Diabetes mellitus

Diabetes mellitus is when the patient has high blood pressure that is through a group of metabolic disease, either because cells do not respond to the insulin that is produced, or the pancreas does not produce enough insulin. This high blood sugar produces the classical symptoms of   frequent urination (polyuria), increased thirst (polydipsia ) and increased hunger (polyphagia ).
There are three main types of diabetes mellitus (DM):

• Type 1 DM results from the body's failure to produce insulin, and currently requires the person to inject insulin or wear an insulin pump. This form was previously referred to as "insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus" (IDDM) or "juvenile diabetes".

• Type 2 DM results from insulin resistance, a condition in which cells fail to use insulin properly, sometimes combined with an absolute insulin deficiency. This form was previously referred to as non insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) or "adult-onset diabetes".

• The third main form, gestational diabetes occurs when pregnant women without a previous diagnosis of diabetes develop a high blood glucose level. It may precede development of type 2 DM.

• Other forms of diabetes mellitus include congenital diabetes, which is due to genetic defects of insulin secretion, cystic fibrosis-related diabetes, steroid diabetes induced by high doses of glucocorticoids, and several forms of monogenic diabetes.

 

Botany

Pinguicula grandiflora commonly known as a Butterwort

Botany is a part of biology and plant life science. In traditional way, the botany science include the study of algae, viruses, and fungi.
Botanist is the person who engaged in the study of botany.
Botany covers a wide range of scientific disciplines including:

• Growth
• Structure
• Reproduction
• Metabolism
• Development
• Diseases
• Chemical properties
• Evolutionary relationships among taxonomic groups

Carbohydrate synthesis

Carbohydrate synthesis is how the carbohydrates (CHO) is generated either natural and unnatural.
This can include the synthesis of monosaccharide residues or oligosaccharides structures that contain more than one monosaccharide.
Another part of carbohydrate known as complex carbohydrates that contain more than ten linked glucose units

Hospital-acquired infection (Nosocomial infection)

Contaminated surfaces increase cross-transmission

A hospital-acquired infection, also known as a nosocomial infection, is an infection whose is favoured to be developed by a hospital environment. This can be through either one acquired by a patient during a hospital visit or one developing among hospital staff. For example, these infections include fungal and bacterial infections and are aggravated by the reduced resistance of individual patients.
In the United States, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimated roughly 1.7 million hospital-associated infections, from all types of microorganisms, including bacteria, combined, cause or contribute to 99,000 deaths each year. In Europe, where hospital surveys have been conducted, the category of Gram-negative infections are estimated to account for two-thirds of the 25,000 deaths each year. Nosocomial infections can cause severe pneumonia and infections of the urinary tract, bloodstream and other parts of the body. Many types are difficult to attack with antibiotics, and antibiotic resistance is spreading to Gram-negative bacteria that can infect people outside the hospital.

Drug tolerance

Definition:

when a patient's reaction to a specific drug and / or the concentration of that drug is no longer has its effect. As a result we require an increase in concentration in order to achieve the desired effect. Drug tolerance can involve both psychological factors and physiological drug tolerance.
Some of the characteristics of drug tolerance:

1. it is reversible
2. the rate depends on the particular drug
3. dosage and frequency of use
4. differential development occurs for different effects of the same drug

Ancient Egyptian medicine

The Edwin Smith Papyrus documents ancient Egyptian medicine, including the diagnosis and treatment ofinjuries

The Ancient Egyptian medicine is one of the oldest documented from our history of mankind. Egyptian medical practice was largely unchanged but was highly advanced for its time and that was from the beginnings of the civilization in the c. 33rd century BC until the Persian invasion of 525 BC. Also this included setting of bones, simple non-invasive surgery and an extensive set of pharmacopoeia.
Egyptian medical thought influenced later traditions, including the Greeks and Egypt

Pathology

A renal cell carcinoma (chromophobe type) viewed on auhematoxylin & eosin stained slide

Pathology is the scientific study of the nature, causes, processes, development, and consequences of the diseases.
Pathology addresses four components of disease:

• cause/etiology
• mechanisms of development (pathogenesis)
• structural alterations of cells (morphologic changes)
• the consequences of changes (clinical manifestations)

Pathology is further separated into divisions, based on either the system being studied (e.g. veterinary pathology and animal disease) or the focus of the examination (e.g. forensic pathology and determining the cause of death).

Drug design

Drug design is the process of how the active ingredients been manufacturing through finding new medications based on the knowledge of a biological target. Mostly, the drug is commonly an organic small molecule that inhibits or activates the function of a biomolecule such as a protein, resulting in a therapeutic benefit to the patient through reaching its target. Basically, drug design involves the design of small molecules that are complementary in shape and charge to the biomolecular target with which they interact and therefore will bind to it. Drug design frequently but not necessarily relies on computer modeling techniques.This type of modeling is often referred to as computer-aided drug design. Finally, drug design that relies on the knowledge of the three-dimensional structure of the biomolecular target is known as structure-based drug design.
The phrase "drug design" is to some extent a misnomer. What is really meant by drug design is ligand design (i.e., design of a small molecule that will bind tightly to its target). Although modeling techniques for prediction of binding affinity are reasonably successful, there are many other properties, such as bioavailability, metabolic half-life, lack of side effects, etc., that first must be optimized before a ligand can become a safe and efficacious drug. These other characteristics are often difficult to optimize using rational drug design techniques.

History of Medicine Part 2

20th century:

• First World War

• The ABO blood group system was discovered in 1901, and the Rhesus group in 1937, facilitating blood transfusion.

• During the 20th century, large-scale wars were attended with medics and mobile hospital units which developed advanced techniques for healing massive injuries and controlling infections rampant in battlefield conditions. Thousands of scarred troops provided the need for improved prosthetic limbs and expanded techniques in plastic surgery or reconstructive surgery. Those practices were combined to broaden cosmetic surgery and other forms of elective surgery.

• During the First World War, Alexis Carrel and Henry Dakin developed the Carrel-Dakin method of treating wounds with an irrigation, Dakin's solution, a germicide which helped prevent gangrene.

• The Great War spurred the usage of Roentgen's X-ray, and the electrocardiograph, for the monitoring of internal bodily functions. This was followed in the inter-war period by the development of the first anti-bacterial agents such as the sulpha antibiotics.

History of Medicine Part 1

History of medicine

Prehistoric medicine:

There is no specific time that we can say when we used the plants for the first time in healing but the use of plants as healing agents is a long-standing practice. Over time through emulation of the behavior of animals, a medicinal knowledge base developed and was passed between generations. As clannish culture specialized specific castes, Shamans and apothecariesperformed the 'niche occupation' of healing.

Parasitology

(Magnified 100×) Adult black fly (Simulium yahense) with (Onchocerca volvulus) emerging from the insect'santenna. The parasite is responsible for the disease known as river blindness in Africa. Sample was chemicallyfixed and critical point dried, then observed using conventional scanning electron microscopy.

What is Parasitology ?

Parasitology is the science that studies the parasites, their hosts, and the relationship between them. For biological discipline, the scope of parasitology is determined by their way of life not by the organism or environment in question. So it forms a synthesis of other disciplines, and draws on techniques from fields such as cell biology, bioinformatics, biochemistry, molecular biology, immunology, genetics, evolution and ecology.

Organic chemistry

Structure of the organic methane molecule: the simplest hydrocarbon compound

Organic chemistry is a chemistry part of discipline involving scientifically studying of the properties, structure, and reactions of organic compounds and organic materials. We can say that subject in its various forms that contain carbon atoms. Study of structure includes using spectroscopy and other chemical and physical  methods to determine the chemical constitution and composition of organic materials and compounds .

 

Study of properties includes both physical properties and chemical properties, and uses similar methods as well as methods to evaluate chemical reactivity, with the aim to understand the behavior of the organic matter in its pure form (when possible), but also in solutions, mixtures, and fabricated forms. The study of organic reactions includes both their preparation by synthesis or by other means as well as their subsequent reactivities, both in the laboratory and via theoretical (in silico) study.

Carcinogenesis (oncogenesis) Part 1

Carcinogenesis (oncogenesis)

Series of mutations are responsible for Cancers. Each mutation is responsible for the alteration of the behaviorof the cell somewhat

Carcinogenesis or oncogenesis is the creation of cancer literally. It is a process where normal cells are transformed into cancer cells. There is a progression of changes at the genetic, cellular and epigenetic level that reprogram a cell to undergo uncontrolled cell division, thus forming a malignant mass.
Under normal circumstances, the balance between proliferation and programmed cell death, usually in the form of apoptosis, is maintained by tightly regulating both processes to ensure the integrity of organs and tissues. Mutations and epimutations in DNA that lead to cancer (only certain mutations and epimutations can lead to cancer and the majority of potential mutations and epimutations will have no bearing) disrupt these orderly processes by disrupting the programming regulating the processes.